Japan’s Quest for Modernization

20 November 2022, NIICE Commentary 8410
Gaurav Dahal

The Tokugawa Feudal Regime lasted for more than two hundred and fifty years and came to an end around 1867 resulting in the change in the governmental system with a centralized constitutional monarchy, known as the Meiji restoration. Here, the emperor was regarded as the divine living decedent in the eyes of people and was placed above the law. This feeling of Emperor Worship by the people was the basis for the country’s unity and discipline. Before this, there were around 300 clans that were governed by the local lord, but after the Meiji restoration, these social rules, and traditions common in the feudal period were abolished and a new government based on international law was established.

By this time Japan was open to Western countries and did successive treaties with the United States, Britain, and other western countries. Despite this inclusion, these treaties were considered unfair and reflected similar treaties that were being forced on China by Britain. No tariff autonomy was provided to Japan in the trade, and extraterritoriality was maintained in the Japanese territory. As the deteriorating condition of China from the imperialist pressure and the opium war was discernible, the main reason for the desire for reform was to make Japan as strong and as capable as western countries.

Iwakura Mission 1871

Considering China’s situation from the interaction with the western countries and to avoid being colonized, Japan understood that it must be recognized as a first-class nation. Therefore, in 1871, the Iwakura mission, a diplomatic mission to the United States and European countries was held by scholars and statesmen to study and import western political, educational, and military reforms which were considered modern compared to Japan’s traditional military system. This would have also enhanced Japan’s stance to renegotiate the unequal terms and revise the treaty. To achieve this mission of making Japan modern, in 1889, the Meiji constitution was promulgated. A Parliament system like UK’s parliament system was established. This constitution was modeled after the Prussian Constitution as the British model was considered too radical where the power gradually shifted from Emperor to parliament.

Japan also went through extreme industrialization from textile factories and an increase in railways. By 1871, railways between Shinbashi and Yokohama were constructed and light industries like Tomioka Silk Mill were established. In 1871, Japan established the Ministry of Education including the provision for mandatory education until 8 years of age. The University of Tokyo was established in 1877. So, this way, while China was occupied to protect its tributary system and considered itself a world hegemon, Japan took a different step to modernize and be part of the western world by importing western culture, values, and traditions. With these steps, Japan was modernizing itself and growing its influence.

As a result, in 1894, Britain accepted to end some extent of extra-territoriality abolishing UK consular jurisdiction. Japan also achieved the victory in 1895 Sino-Japanese war and the 1905 Russo-Japanese war signalling Japan as a rising military power.

Hegemony of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance to Japan as the Regional Hegemon

In 1874, the Japanese government protested Qing Government about 54 Japanese Okinawan fishermen that were killed in Taiwan. To this, Qing Government denied any control over Taiwan. Therefore, the Japanese government send its troops there which resulted in the signing of the Sino-Japanese Treaty where 500,000 Ryo of indemnity was paid by the Qing government to the Japanese government. This also forced the Qing government to recognize Okinawa under Japanese control instead of being its tributary state. In 1875, St. Petersburg Treaty was signed between Japan and Russia where Japan gave up its possession of Sakhalin in exchange for Kuril Island under Russia. In 1900, Boxer Rebellion took place in China where 20,000 Russian troops advanced to control Manchuria. Due to the triple intervention by Russia, Germany, and France, in 1902 Anglo-Japanese Alliance was formed between these two nations obligating them to respond when either of the countries was attacked by two or more nations.

In 1903, negotiations over Manchuria and Korea ended with Russia and in 1904, Russo-Japanese War was fought where Japan stood victorious. Consequently, in 1905, the Portsmouth treaty was signed where Japan got control over Korea and Russian troops were forced to withdraw from Manchuria. This incident contributed to the Anglo-Japanese Alliance’s hegemony in the international order.

World War I and Japan’s Role

As World War I started, Japan was considered a rising power but with limited influence on the world stage. Japan entered the war by attacking Germany, and occupied areas in East Asia like Tsingtao, and Micronesia. During the war, Japan assisted the allies. After the war was over, European countries retreated from the Asian region which largely benefitted Japan as it was able to keep the territory it won in the war as the spoils further enhancing the Japanese economy.

In 1922, a series of Washington Treaties were signed, the first being the 4-power treaty between Japan, the UK, the USA, and France. It was an attempt to replace the Anglo-Japanese alliance. Subsequently, the 5 Power treaty on naval power was signed between these 4 Powers including Italy as an attempt to limit the powerful countries to an arms race by setting the ratio of their naval power. In this period Japan, US, UK, and France were the undisputed hegemon in the international order.

Prime Minister Shidehara’s Diplomacy was considered pro west which was centered on cooperation with western powers like Great Britain and the US. He also attempted to decrease the intervention in the domestic affairs of its neighboring China. In the great depression of 1929, countries were divided into “have’s” and “have-nots” by the number of colonies they maintained. So, assuming important for Japan’s survival, in 1932, Manchukuo was established as a puppet state of Japan in Manchuria.

In 1938, National Mobilization Law was established which made all the parts of the Japanese economy under the complete control of the government. Similarly, in 1940, Japan, Germany, and Italy signed the pact as a defensive military alliance infamously considered one of the triggers of World War II. During this period, Japan was also considered the regional hegemon of East Asia as other colonized Asian countries expected Japan to liberate them from being Western countries’ colonies.